1、Keys to the ExercisesChapter One1. lexicology: lexicology is a branch of linguistics that systematically studies the vocabulary in a given language. Lexicology deals with not only simple words in all their aspects but also word equivalents, the meaningful units of language.lexical semantics: Lexical
2、 semantics, as a branch of semantics, is the study of meanings of words and how these meanings are organized.dictionary meaning: the word meanings stored in our minds can be defined, much the same as they appeared in the dictionary ,which are viewed as inherent in words, thus they are called “inhere
3、nt meanings” or “dictionary meanings”encyclopedic meaning: encyclopedic meaning is the meanings derived from non-linguistic world knowledge or encyclopedic knowledge.cognitive semantics: cognitive semantics is generally concerned with the cognitive aspects of meaning and believes that conceptual con
4、tent or conceptual structure is reflected in linguistic meanings. In other words, we can research our mind in terms of external linguistic meanings.lexicon: lexicon is a stock of individual words, organized in a certain manner.grammar: grammar is a set of rules or regularities applied to form comple
5、x expressions via simpler ones. content words: content words of a sentence contribute to the main content of this sentence, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. This class is open since new words are consistently added to the stock.function words: function words determine the major structur
6、e of a sentence, which thus serve as scaffoldings for meanings that are lexically specified. Function words include determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, conventionally as a part of grammar. Function words are closed, the number of which is relatively small and fixed in number.lexica
7、l relations: lexical relations is concerned with “relations within words”, namely, homonymy and polysemy, which are treated as the core of lexicology at all times amainly because they are sources for lexical ambiguity.2. Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that systematically studies the vocabular
8、y in a given language. Lexicology deals with not only simple words in all their aspects but also word equivalents, the meaningful units of language.Whereas the study of lexicology includes words of different levels either in form or in meaning, lexicology is therefore cannot be separated from a numb
9、er of disciplines, such as, phonetics, morphology, semantics, phraseology, lexicography, stylistics, grammar (see P.4).3. The vocabulary of a language is not merely an inventory of unconnected, isolated elements. It has a structure, that is, there are various types of relations and connections betwe
10、en words. The reasons (see P.5) are as follows: First, linguistic elements are generally organized into two associative relations: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Second, English words are usually organized into lexical fields or semantic fields. Moreover, there are a large number of varieti
11、es in English vocabulary system. 4. Lexical semantics particularly centers on word meaning, which is thus viewed as a subset of lexicology. In lexical semantics, the meaning of words is the major topic, and the meanings of morphemes and multi-word units are also of much concern. Cognitive semantics
12、is generally concerned with the cognitive aspects of meaning and believes that conceptual content or conceptual structure is reflected in linguistic meanings. Generally speaking, cognitive semantics develops new ways to the study of word meaning, which is particularly reflected in the following aspe
13、cts. First, cognitive semanticists hold that meaning is encyclopedic in nature. Second, cognitive semanticists propose that meanings of a word form a radial category which exhibit typicality effects. Third, word meaning varies according to the context of use. There is therefore no clear distinction
14、between knowledge of word meaning (semantics) and that of contextual use (pragmatics). (see P.5-8)5. Word meaning varies according to the context of use. There is therefore no clear distinction between knowledge of word meaning (semantics) and that of contextual use (pragmatics). (see P.8)6. Mark “t
15、rue” or “false” for the following statements and explain why.1) Lexicology is merely the study of content words. (F)2) Whereas word equivalents are a necessary part for lexicology, all types of phrases fall within the range of lexicology. (F)3) There is no principled clear-cut between the lexicon of
16、 a language and its grammar. (T)4) Lexical semantics is the study of word meaning and thus is a subfield of lexicology. (T)7. Omitted.Chapter Two1. Multiple Choices 1) a 2) c 3) c 4) a 5) a, b c, d, e 6) d2. Old English, used between 450 and 1150, is a collective term for four dialects sharing some
17、common features, Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon and Kentish. It is characterized by different spelling, pronunciation, lexicon and grammar from Modern English. In terms of the spelling, many words in Old English may appear strange to modern readers because some of the letters are no longer in use
18、 in Modern English, such as “” (in soe), “” (in gelste), “” (in onne) and “” (in ingea). Another eye-catching difference is that few words seem to have spellings similar to their modern counterparts. For example, few words in the line “sunu Beanstanes soe gelste” (line 524, Beowulf) are identifiable
19、 to non-specialist modern readers. Pronunciation of Old English words commonly differs from their Modern English equivalents too. In particular, long vowels in Old English have undergone considerable changes. For example, the Old English word stn (stB:n) is the same word as Modern English stone, but
20、 the vowel is different. Similar correspondence can be found in hlig holy, gn go, bn bone, etc. The vocabulary of Old English is almost purely Germanic, but when the Norman Conquest brought French into England as the language of higher class, much of the Old English vocabulary died out. Those that s
21、urvive are basic elements of our vocabulary such as mann man, wif wife, cild child, hs house, mete meat, strang strong, etan eat, etc. Old English is fundamentally different from Modern English in its grammar. More specifically, Old English is an inflectional language. For example, nouns and adjecti
22、ves are inflected for four cases in the singular and four in the plural, although the forms are not always distinctive, and adjectives even have separate forms for the three genders of masculine, feminine and neutral. In addition, verbs are distinctively inflected for the different person, numbers,
23、tenses, and moods.3. Conventionally, native elements of the English language are words of Anglo-Saxon stock. Though small in number, they are quite important in use due to their special semantic and grammatical roles in communication. Native elements are characterized by the following features: a. A
24、ll-national character. Native elements are shared by all the native speakers, whether he is a king under the crown, a fisherman on the sea or a vagrant in the street.b. Mono-syllabicity. Most of the native elements in Modem English have only one syllable. e.g. sun, cow, go, run, etc. c. Productivity
25、. Most of the native elements are monosyllabic or root words. They are semantically basic. Thus, they are productive in the sense that clusters of words are derived or compounded from them. For example, the word hand, has brought such derivatives and compounds as: handy, handle, handkerchief, handiw
26、ork, handicraft, handful, handbook, handbarrow, handcuff, etc.d. Collocational extensiveness. Native elements have a wide range of collocation. Many native words enter quite a number of set expressions, idioms, phrases and proverbial sayings. For example, the word heel enters the following units: Ac
27、hilles heel (a vulnerable point), heel over head or head over heels (upside down), cool ones heels (be kept waiting), show a clean pair of heels, take to ones heels (run away), turn on ones heels (turn sharply round), etc.e. Semantic polysemy. Native words are highly polysemous because they have gon
28、e through semantic changes due to their frequent use in daily life. For example, the verb tell conveys the following meanings: make known, express, explain; utter, confide in order; distinguish; count; reveal; scold, etc. f. High-frequency value. Native elements form the bulk of the most frequent el
29、ements used in any style of speech. Every writer uses considerably more native words than borrowed ones. Corpus investigations show that about 90 percent of the words in Shakespeares works and 94 percent of words in King James Bible are native words.g. Stylistic neutrality. Most native words are sty
30、listically neutral and are equally fit to be used in a lecture, a poem, or when speaking to a child. This can be observed by a simple comparison, for example begin (neutral) vs. commence (formal).4. Omitted.5. Borrowings from Chinese: e.g. sampan, ginseng, chop suey, chowchow, chopsticks.Borrowings
31、from Italian: e.g. volcano, balcony, bust, cornice, colonnade.Borrowings from Spanish: e.g. indigo, vanilla, cigar, armada, cargo.Borrowings from Portuguese: e.g. banana, pimento, buffalo, caste, cobra.Borrowings from Hebrew: e.g. amen, alleluia, hallelujah, Jehovah, jubilee.Borrowings from Persian:
32、 e.g. jasmine, lemon, lilac, orange, spinach.6. Look at the following lexical group and explain through what languages they came into English.1) Scandinavian Element2) French Element3) German Element4) Latin Element5) Italian Element6) Russian Element7) Greek Element 8) Chinese ElementChapter Three1
33、. The distinctions between type and token can be roughly described as differences between a general sort of thing and its particular concrete instances. According to the English spelling convention of placing a space between each word, we may count every sequence of letters between two spaces or bet
34、ween a space and a punctuation mark as different word tokens. Therefore, the given passage contains 75 word tokens. But only 39 word types are identified because some of these word tokens represent the same word type. For example, and and the repeat six and nine times respectively while two inflecti
35、ng word tokens creeping and creeps of the same word type creep appear in the passage. The type and token distinction is necessary to be drawn in lexicography, in counting word frequency, in concordances, in study of collocations, and in semantic theory.2. A lexeme is an abstract unit that belongs to
36、 a grammatical category. Its properties are most usually characteristics of syntactic classification or of meaning. Lexeme is usually contrasted with word form. A word form is the actual instantiation of a lexeme with particular grammatical behavior, which can be analyzed into letters (e.g. r-o-s-e
37、and r-o-s-e-s) and meaningful components (for example, roses is composed of rose and plural inflection -s). According to the above distinction, all words in (a) except breaking and punishing and all words in (b) are lexemes, and therefore need to be listed in a dictionary of modern English. More spe
38、cifically, breaking and break are two word forms of the same lexeme BREAK because they belong to the same grammatical category and refer to the same action. The inflectional morpheme -ing only represents different grammatical behaviors of BREAK in different grammatical contexts. Similarly, punishing
39、 and punish are two word forms of the same lexeme PUNISH. By contrast, break, breakable and breakage, for example, are different lexemes because they belong to different grammatical categories with distinct meaning, that is, break is a verb referring to an action, breakable, an adjective referring t
40、o a state while breakage, a noun referring to an abstract thing. 3. Omitted4. Omitted5. Idioms are semantically idiosyncratic expressions such as to pull ones leg, to kick the bucket, to cook ones goose, to show the white feather, etc., whose meanings cannot be deduced from the meanings of the compo
41、nents. Idioms resist substitution, interruption and re-ordering of their parts. For example, to pull ones leg and to kick the bucket can never be reproduced with drag substituting pull or bail taking the place of bucket. Meanwhile, some alternations like to pull ones big leg or to kick the small buc
42、ket are also resisted since interruptions of the idioms are not allowed. In contrast, collocations are sequences of words which habitually co-occur or go together, but they are fully analyzable in meaning, such as heavy smoker, strong tea, fine weather, light drizzle, high winds. Collocations are ea
43、sy to distinguish from idioms. Different from the “physically intact” requirement of idioms, there are always possibilities for collocations to be reshaped as long as the contextual requirement is satisfied. For example, heavy smoker can be analogically reshaped as heavy drinker and heavy drug-user
44、because both drinker and drug-user meet the highly restricted contextual requirement, i.e., the notion of “consumption”. In some cases, elements of collocations can be fairly freely modified. For example, foot the bill in Im expected to foot the bill can be replaced by foot the electricity bill or f
45、oot all the 50 bloody electricity bills.6. (1) The above words can be analyzed as follows: special-ize; un-sympath-etic; individual-ist-ic; bull-s-eye; knicker-bock-er-s. Therefore, specialize is composed of two morphemes, unsympathetic, individualistic and bulls-eye of three morphemes, while knicke
46、rbockers of four morphemes. (2) Bound morpheme: -ize, un-, -etic, -ist, -ic, -s, -er, -s Free morpheme: special, sympathy, individual, bull, eye, knicker, bock Inflectional morpheme: -s, -s Derivational morpheme: -ize, un-, -etic, -ist, -ic, -er Root: special, sympathy, individual, Affix: -ize, un-,
47、 -etic, -ist, -ic, -s, -er, -s Lexical morpheme: special, sympathy, individual, bull, eye, knicker, bock Grammatical morpheme: -s, -s7. Omitted.Chapter Four1. Define the following terms briefly.word formation: the making of wordsmorpheme: the minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function that cann
48、ot be further analyzedfree morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone without another morphemebound morpheme: a morpheme that cannot stand alone but only functions as part of a wordmorph: actual phonetic or orthographic realization of a morphemeallomorph: a member of a set of morphs which represent t
49、he same morpheme, which are phonological or orthographic variants of a single morphemeroot: the central element of meaning in a word; part of a word that is left when all the affixes have been removedstem: the basic element or elements of a word to which an inflectional affix can be addedprefix: the morpheme that precedes the rootsuffix: the morpheme t
