1、Preliminaries:1. Why sentence b cannot replace sentence a? a. Mary is poor but John is happy. b. ?*Although Mary is poor, John is happy. 2. What do coordination and subordination means? Illustrate the terms with exemplifications. Coordination Subordination Coordination A coordination is a sequence o
2、f semantically-related grammatical units that are similar in form, equal in rank of structure, identical in function and are connected by coordinators, e.g.husband and wife, up and downgood but expensive, brave but foolishstay or leave, to be or not to beNotes:Coordination may be on different level
3、of structures (words, phrases, or clauses)Coordinating devices may include coordinators and punctuation marks.CoordinatorsModern English has three basic coordinators: and, or, but. Added to these are yet, so, nor, items that can function both as conjunctions and as conjunctive adverbs. In addition,
4、there are some correlative coordinators semantically related to the basic coordinators such as bothand, not only but also, not nor, neither nor, either or, etc.There are also quasi-coordinators such as well as, as much as, rather than, more than, etc. ranking between a coordinators and a subordinato
5、r or complex preposition.Finally, for can be a either as a coordinator or as a subordinator. In our course book, for is treated as a subordinator, introducing an adverbial clause of cause, like because.Coordinators Semantically considered, English coordinators can be roughly divided into three types
6、: And-group coordinators addition Or-group coordinators alternation But-group coordinators contrast/transferAnd-group coordinatorsObserve the following examples involving semantic extension via coordinators: and, both and, not only (but) also, not nor, neither nor.As is reported, a trade agreement w
7、as signed, and a cultural exchange was arranged.Mrs Cox is both kind and gentle to her pupils.He not only wanted the diamond but wanted it desperately.Jane will never compromise with Bill, nor will Bill compromise with Jane. He has neither phoned nor written us recently.And-group coordinators But: H
8、e is nice and gentle. Ill go and bring back your boots. You must try and persuade her to come. Can you touch pitch and not be defiled? nicely / verygo totry towithout being defiledAnd-group coordinatorsNote that besides “addition”, coordinator and also carries some other senses, e.g.He is Jack of al
9、l trades and master of none.He took a cigarette and handed it to a stranger.Turn left at the first crossing and youll see the school.Mary likes music and Jim is fond of sports.He is a bit barbaric, and I dont like this. transfertemporal sequencecondition & resultcontrastAttitudinal disjunctOr-group
10、coordinators This group includes or and eitheror, denoting “alternation”. But it is worth noting that they can also denote negative condition e.g. Make up your mind, or you will miss the chance. Youll either behave yourself, or youll never go out to play. *Both Jane wanted to go to the south, and he
11、r husband wanted to go there, too. *He both like music and sports. *He not only likes music but also sports. *He both likes music and he likes sports. *He not only likes music but he also like sports.Observe the unacceptable sentences below, transform them into grammatical forms:But-group coordinato
12、rs This group includes but, notbut, while, whereas, yet, only, etc. denoting “contrast or a turn in meaning, e.g. This coat is not mine but yours. It never rains but it pours. She is a funny girl, yet you cant help liking her. I often dream of buying a big house in Guangzhou, only I cannot afford it
13、.Subordination A grammatical unit that functions as a constituent of another unit of equal or lower rank of structure is called a subordinate construction. Subordinate construction can be a finite clause, a non-finite clause, a verbless clause or a phrase. Subordinate clauses are generally introduce
14、d by subordinators, which in terms of word formation, can be classified into (P346-347):simple subordinators (e.g. when, before, thoughetc.)complex subordinators (e.g. now that, such thatetc.) correlative subordinators (e.g. no sooner than, etc.)marginal subordinators (e.g. on the grounds that)The r
15、ain stopped, and the sun came out.When the rain stopped, the sun came out.Coordination and subordination are two devices for combining and relating ideas. Generally speaking, coordination establishes a relationship between ideas of approximately equal importance, while subordination establishes a ki
16、nd of relationship which indicates that one idea is more important than the other.Observe the pair of sentences below:It is a general practice to put the main idea in the matrix clause and the minor idea in a dependent clause. Subordinate ideas can be expressed through finite or nonfinite clauses or
17、 by a verbless clause, e.g.As they were curious about their new neighbors, the Johnsons went and visited them at the first opportunity.Being curious about their new neighbors, the Johnsons Curious about their new neighbors, the Johnsons With curiosity, the Johnsons Ways of subordinating minor ideasS
18、yntactically, subordinate clauses can be subdivided into three types:nominal clause perform the functions of nouns, introduced by that or wh-word such as: who, what, which, whether, where, when, how, why, etc. relative clause perform the function of adjectives, introduced by relative pronouns and re
19、lative adverb (we will return to this in next lecture) adverbial clause perform the function of adverbs, denoting time, place, manner, cause, result, purpose, condition and concession, etc.Subordinate clauses (finite) You must give it back to whoever it belongs to. My first question, why he was late
20、, has not yet been answered. The question is whether he ever went there alone. I cant imagine what made him so popular among the youngsters. It is quite clear that the crime was done deliberately. What caused the fire is still a mystery. Tell the syntactic functions of the nominal clauses:object of
21、prep.appositionSubj. complementobjectsubjectsubject When/Whenever he goes to town, he always visits his aunt. She felt ill when/whenever she ate oyster (牡蛎). He cooked while I read the paper. He was cooking while I was reading the paper. He worked as long as we played.Observe the adverbial clauses o
22、f time, pay attention to their temporal features:same time, habitual, = if/every timeBoth actions are durative, happen at the same period of time,emphasizing equal length of time The dog barked when it heard a noise. The instant he saw her, he recognized her. Let me know as soon as you arrive. Hardl
23、y had I left the room when they began to quarrel. No sooner had I left the room than it collapsed.Observe the adverbial clauses of time, pay attention to their temporal features:Two simultaneous short action, I broke a glass while I was cooking the dinner. I was cooking the dinner when I broke a gla
24、ss. = , and at that time I broke a glass I met Marry as I was going home. I was going home when I met Marry. =, and at that time I met MarryObserve the adverbial clauses of time, which action lasted longer?One action happens in the process of another.One action happens in the process of another. Aft
25、er he painted the windows, he painted the doors. When he had painted the windows, he painted the doors. He didnt paint the doors until after he had painted the windows. When I reached the station, the train had left. The train had left before I reached the station. I reached station after the train
26、had left.Observe the adverbial clauses of time, which action takes place earlier or later? We hurried because / for it was getting dark. It must be very late because / for the streets are quite deserted. In denoting direct reason, because and for are interchangeable, but in current speech because is
27、 preferable to for which is commonly used in formal style and sounds more or less bookish. Observe the adverbial clauses of cause:A because-clause can appear either before or after the main clause, whereas a for-clause can only follow rather than precede the main clause.A because-clause can stand al
28、one as a response to a why-question, while a for-clause cannot.Because can be negated by not or be modified by an adverb. It also admits coordination like “not because but because”, while for cannot be used in this way.A because-clause can function as the focal element of a cleft sentence, where for
29、-clause cannot. The differences between because & for:For example:John failed the exam, because / for he did not study hard.Because /*For he did not study hard, John failed the exam.It is because /*for he did not study hard that John failed the exam. Why did John failed the exam? Because / *For he d
30、id not study hard. The differences between because & for:Note: for can also be a coordinator, introducing an independent clause of cause, whereas because is always a subordinator, only introducing a dependent clause which cannot stand alone unless it is used to answer a why-question, e.g.When I saw
31、her in the river, I was frightened. For / *Because at that point the currents were dangerous.The differences between because & for:Among because, since and as, because is the strongest in tone; since ranks next, and as next to since. When used to denote cause, because supplies new information. There
32、fore, a because-clause can be used as an answer to why-question and as the focal element of a cleft sentence. Since and as express the information already known to the listener. because, since, asI dislike those luxurious hotels, not because I cannot afford the expenses, but because I dont think it
33、deserves the price they ask. Since China has a population as huge as 1.3 billion, a very small problem in China, if multiplied by 1.3 billion, will turn out to be extremely serious.In order to prevent the pollution from reaching the point of no return, lets take actions from ourselves to protect our
34、 mother earth, as we have only one earth.Examples:Now that /Seeing that / Since /As we are all here, the meeting can begin.*Now that / Seeing that/ Since/ As I was in the same class as George, I know him well.This machine differs from that other one in that it is more powerful.Im ready to accept you
35、r proposal inasmuch as I believe it to be the best you can offer.She is suing for divorce on the grounds that / for the reason that he deserted her and the children. We succeeded by reason that we are better organized.He is working hard for fear that he should fail.Formal styleThe teacher slowed dow
36、n his speech so that the students can hear him clearly.Mary went to the lecture early so that she got a good seat.The street was so quiet that I felt a bit scared. The earthquake was so powerful that all the houses have been toppled. He must have annoyed you very much that you spoke to him like that
37、.I must be absent-minded that I forgot to bring my ticket.What have I done that you should be so angry with me?so that vs so thatHe didnt light the fire though / although it was cold.I forgot my appointment even though / *even although my sectary reminded me.Clever *although / though he was, he fail
38、ed the exam.*Although / Though everyone desert you, I will not.David is over eighty. He is still writing, though / *although.though vs althoughDenote concession interchangeablyAlthough cant be intensified by evenInversion Hypothetical meaningAs an adverbalthough / thoughalthough / though都可以表示让步关系，译为
39、：虽然，尽管。He didnt light the fire though / although it was coldalthough比though语气重，常用以强调让步。He insisted on doing it although I warned him not to. 句首通常用althoughAlthough she isnt fond of pop music, she isnt against it. though可和even连用，although则不可。I often take a shower although/even though I prefer a bath.I
40、forgot my appointment although/even though my secretary reminded me.though可以在非正式文体中用作连接性状语，而although不可以。though用作连接性状语可以位于句中，句末，通常用逗号隔开。He is a dangerous element; there is no reason, though, to shoot him.He said he would come; he didnt, though.当让步分句所指是一种假设的情况时，通常用though,不用although.Though all the worl
41、d were against me, I should still hold to my opinion.Lets start as arranged though it should rain tomorrow.He will probably agree; you never know, though,though还可具备as（让步）一样的句型，although不具备。Clever though/as you maybe, you can not do that.although / thoughExercise: Fill in the blanks with though or alt
42、hough1. Difficult _ the task was, they managed to accomplish it in time.2. They were able to find a room _ they didnt have a reservation.3. He didnt tell me where he had been, but I knew it, _ .4. _ everybody desert you, I will not .5. Sneer unkindly _ you may, John is very popular.6. _ the traffic
43、held us up, we got to the airport on time.7. He kept on making research in the subject, _ he met with a lot of difficulties.Keys：1. though 2. although/even though 3. though 4. Though 5. though 6. Although/Even though 7. althoughExercisesCorrect errors, if there are any, in the following sentences.1.
44、 For I have never met him, I cant tell you what he looks like. Since / as I have never met him, 2. Because all the shops have closed, it must be very late now. As / Since all the shops3. The teacher is very strict with us, simply since he wants us to make rapid progress. , simply becauseExercisesCor
45、rect errors, if there are any, in the following sentences.4. He didnt attend the meeting, not for he thought it was unimportant, but for he had too much work to do. not because, but because5. It was simply as he was ill that he didnt got to work. It was simply because6. Because the weather is so bad
46、 outside, why dont you stay with us overnight? Since 7. Just as he was in a hurry, he left his passport at the bank. Just becauseExercisesCorrect errors, if there are any, in the following sentences.8. It is because the birds are singing that it must be early morning. 逻辑有问题（语气太强）逻辑有问题（语气太强）It must b
47、e early morning, as the birds are singing. 9. Do you despise him since he is poor? because he10. Probably since the streets flood so often after heavy rain, they need a drainage system badly.Probably because, 11. I was writing a letter while the telephone rang. The telephone rang while I was writing
48、 a letter.ExercisesCorrect errors, if there are any, in the following sentences.12. Just when we left the house, it began to rain. Hardly/Scarcely had we left when it began to rain.13. So that he awakened his mother, Melbourn slammed the door. Melbourn slammed the door so that he awakened his mother
49、.14. When in applied physics we hold our own, in applied chemistry we have lost much ground. While in applied chemistry we have lost much ground, in applied physics we hold our own.ExercisesCorrect errors, if there are any, in the following sentences.15. Sneer unkindly although you may, John is very
50、 popular. Sneer unkindly though you may, 16. Lets start as arranged, although it rain tomorrow. Lets start as arrange, though it rain tomorrow.17. I often take a shower, even although I prefer a bath. , even though18. Now that he was ill, he was excused from the meeting. Since he was ill, 19.The rea
