1、第二篇第二篇 近代科学技术的进展 近代科学最大特点是用数学语言和实验手段研究自然，这是人类与自然界对话的特殊方式。 这一时期，科学技术发展开始打破国家和地域界限，天文学、力学、数学、生物学、化学、物理学等都得到系统发展，技术也得到全面进步，并促进了工业的发展。Lord Kelvin and Glasgowin Kelvins laboratory 近代科学技术是以前所未有的速度发展的，这个时期的一系列科学技术成就，直接构成了当代科学技术体系的基础。 这一时期，由于人类坚信科学理性可以为自然界立法，并靠技术和工业，在了解自然的基础上开始征服和改造自然，人类社会进入工业文明时代。第九章 新时代的到
2、来新时代的到来 现代自然科学，和整个近代史一样，是从这样一个伟大的时代算起只是在这个时候才真正发现了地球，奠定了以后的世界贸易以及从手工业过渡到工场手工业的基础，而工场手工业又是现代大工业的出发点这是一次人类从来没有经历过的最伟大的、最进步的变革，是一个需要巨人而且产生了巨人-在思维能力、热情和性格方面，在多才多艺和学识渊博方面的巨人的时代。恩格斯：自然辩证法城市和资本主义生产 欧洲中世纪缓慢的技术进步使手工业和商业有了更大规模，社会能够养活的非农人口增加，同东方贸易多的地中海沿岸形成大小新城市，成了新的商业和手工业中心，部分拥有大量金钱的商人和新贵族用资本开办工场，生产为贸易和城市生活所需产
3、品，原有小作坊变成较大工场。意大利佛罗伦萨 自由商业竞争使工场主不得不设法改进技术。这些工场通过专业分工，让许多人在同一时间和同一地点生产同一种产品，生产效率提高，产品周期缩短。同时，分工使操作过程专业化，手工劳动变得简单，这就可能发明新工具或机器代替原来的手工操作。 专门化工具慢慢出现，刨、凿、钻等工具得到改进，新式纺车、卧式织机、水泵也出现，水磨、风车和机械钟得到改进。冶金、酿酒、玻璃制造、眼镜制造业也兴旺起来。George Browns basement workshop. 这时，部分知识分子对技术问题的兴趣增加了。据说列奥那多达芬奇(1452-1519)曾三番五次去佛罗伦萨纺织厂观察纺
4、织机，到米兰铁工厂、大炮铸造厂观察风箱和炼铜炉，到教堂观察钟。他研究后改进过纺织机和织布机，还研究了螺丝、齿轮、联轴节、轴承、杠杆、斜面等简单机械的原理。 列奥那多达芬奇在研究水波和声波的传播规律后提出了液体压力的概念，证明连通器中液柱必然等高。在建筑中，他得出柱子载重能力和直径立方成正比、横梁承受能力与粗细成正比而与长度成反比的经验公式。 总之，流体力学、摩擦理论、机械传动、炮弹运动、化学工艺等都开始成为人们研究的问题。 手工工场发展和贸易活动繁荣使城市经济生活复杂化，管理逐渐完善，形成手工业行会和商业行会。市民共同利益和防卫需要，意大利形成许多大小城市国家。 在新的以城市为中心的国家里，通
5、过各种渠道聚敛起来的财富潜在地成为特权和地位的挑战者。 当一项公共工程或城防事业以财富的数量来向所有市民摊派捐税时，就使一般市民们更多地意识到了自己的重要性。 金钱开始溶化中世纪封建秩序划定的社会等级界限，尊贵贫贱观念受到金钱冲击。 发现地球 地中海沿岸城市缓慢形成 资本主义生产时，1453年， 土耳其苏丹穆罕默德 二世15万大军和360艘左 右战船攻陷由热那亚人、 威尼斯人和希腊人帮助固 守的东罗马帝国首都君士 坦丁堡。 强大的奥斯曼帝国牢牢控制了东地中海，在意大利同东方和非洲的贸易线上树起壁垒。博斯普鲁斯海峡的关卡和东方商路过境税使欧洲经济车轮徘徊不前。The Ottoman Empire
6、The Ottoman Empire arose from a Turkish principality founded in Anatolia (Asia Minor) at the end of the 13th century, when the empire of the Seljuk Turks had collapsed and the Byzantine Empire was crumbling. The Ottoman or Osmanli Turks were named after the founder of the royal dynasty, Osman I (Uth
7、man in Arabic), whose descendants reigned for more than 600 years.In its heyday, the Ottoman Empire included not only Asia Minor, where modern Turkey is located, but also much of southeastern Europe and the Middle East, Egypt, and part of North Africa. The empire began to decline in the 16th century
8、, partly because of the weakness of its sultans, but it remained a world power until the early 20th century.The Ottomans sided with Germany and the other Central Powers in the First World War, and as a result the empire fell apart. In 1920 the last sultan, Mehmed VI, signed the Treaty of Sevres, whi
9、ch took away Turkeys territories outside Asia Minor. In 1922, Turkish nationalists abolished the sultanate and Mehmed went into exile. His cousin Abdulmecid II was then given the title of caliph. In 1923 Turkey became a republic, and the following year the Caliphate was also abolished and Abdulmecid
10、 too was exiled.同资本主义萌芽一起生长的欧洲人对东方黄金和财富的幻想，却由于武力和地理阻拦而更加狂烈。既然通过地中海到东方路不通，于是人们把目光投向大西洋，企图重新寻找一条通往东方的道路。 希腊人关于大地球形的知识和中国人最先发明的罗盘使人们敢这样想和做。而地中海沿岸的工场能造出适于远洋航行的多桅帆船。从海上和东方直接贸易可免去陆路跋涉，还会摆脱中转商人所赚取的大笔利润。于是，地中海西端直接濒临大西洋的西班牙和葡萄牙，利用最优越的地理位置，始探通往东方新航路。Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus 意大利热那亚织工儿子克里斯托弗哥伦布
11、(1451-1506)受天文学家托斯堪内里(1397-1482)的鼓励，深信埃拉托色尼大地球形观点，将此作为事业基础。 1486年，他到葡萄牙国王处游说，企图西行达印度。葡萄牙已把寄望绕非航路，于是他又去找西班牙国王，西班牙忙于同阿拉伯人的战争，没立刻支持他。Bartolomeu Dias 率先到达印度 在哥伦布搁置第二年，即1487年，葡萄牙人迪亚士迪亚士的船队沿非洲西海岸南下，绕南端尖角进入印度洋。他们发现前进时大陆已到了左方，而太阳则从右方升起了。这次航行后，葡萄牙国王将非洲南端尖角称好望角。Bartolomeu Dias, Navigator / Explorer Born: ca.
12、1450 Birthplace: Died: May 1500 Best Known As: Portuguese discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope Bartolomeu Dias was a Portugese navigator whose 1487-88 Atlantic voyage around the southern tip of Africa opened sea routes between Europe and Asia. In 1486 King Joo II (King John II) assigned Dias, a membe
13、r of the royal court, to command a voyage with both spiritual and material aspirations: Dias was to search for the lands of Prester John - a legendary Christian priest and African king - and challenge the Muslim dominance of trade with Asia. By 1488 Dias had unknowingly rounded the African continent
14、 in a storm and made landfall at what is now Mossel Bay. On his return voyage he discovered what he called the Cape of Storms (Cabo Tormentoso), later re-named the Cape of Good Hope (Caboda Ba Esperana) by Joo. Although Dias did not find any sign of an African Christian, his voyage established a sea
15、 route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean and Asia. In 1497 Dias accompanied Vasco da Gama on a voyage as far as the Cape Verde Islands, and in 1500 he joined Pedro Alvares Cabrals westward expedition. Diass ship went down in a storm and he perished at sea sometime in late May (Cabral went
16、on to make landfall in Brazil).Bartholomeu Dias Bartholomeu Dias also called Bartholomew Diaz, was a Portuguese navigator whose discovery in 1488 of the Cape of Good Hope showed Europeans there was a feasible route to India around the storm-driven southern tip of Africa. He also discovered for Europ
17、e the south-east trade winds and the westerlies to the west and south of South Africa, thus establishing the wind system for those who sailed after him. King Joo II of Portugal financed Diass expedition. Dias took part in Cabrals expedition that discovered Brazil, but Diass ship sank during a storm.
18、 It is very unlikely that Dias was, in fact, the first mariner to round the Cape. The great merchant traders of antiquity the Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Arabs, Chinese and Indians all made journeys down the west and east African coasts, and one expedition went right around the continent.Christo
19、pher Columbus:came to a New land 1492年，西班牙王国把阿拉伯人完全赶出伊比利亚半岛，立刻支持哥伦布计划。 哥被封海军大将，1492年8月3日率领三只帆船和90名船员从巴洛斯港出发，70天后到达巴哈马群岛，接又到古巴和海地。但哥伦布把新发现的地方误认为印度，把古巴误认为日本。 此后到1504年他又三次出航，往来欧美间，但始终认为自己发现的是印度。他把地球估计得太小，这曾是他远航勇气的来源。 As a reward for his successful voyage of discovery, the Spanish sovereigns granted Col
20、umbus the right to bear arms. According to the blazon specified in letters patent dated May 20, 1493, Columbus was to bear in the first and the second quarters the royal charges of Castile and Leon - the castle and the lion - but with different tinctures or colors. In the third quarter would be isla
21、nds in a wavy sea, and in the fourth, the customary arms of his family.This is America 哥伦布发现没给西班牙立即带来财富，英雄在失意和冷落中死去。1519年9月20日，在西班牙王室支持下，葡萄牙人麦哲伦开始环球旅行。船队265名海员，先达美洲南端，后入太平洋，并取名。1521年3月达菲律宾群岛，麦哲伦图用岛上部落间矛盾征服这个岛，但却丢了性命。1522年9月，经疾病、战斗和疲劳折磨剩的18个船员驾驶仅剩一只帆船回到西班牙。人类第一次环球航行终于完成，大地球形猜想得到确证。Ferdinand MagellanB
22、orn: 1480 Died: 1521Dairy of the great navigatorourney Around the WorldIn September of 1519, my crew and I said our prayers and set sail for southern Spain with five shipsthe Santiago, the San Antonio, the Conception, the Trinidad, and the Victoria. At first, all went well. Our small fleet sailed ac
23、ross the Atlantic Ocean and reached South America. We stocked up with goods and sailed down the coastline looking for a passage through this great continent. We just couldnt find a route through South America! We sailed further and further south, sailing into every river and bay we came upon. The we
24、ather was getting colder, and we were running out of supplies. The crew revolted against the other captains and me. I had the men who started the mutiny hanged, and then we continued our journey. Finally, in October of 1520, we found a strait. I named it after myself, calling it the Strait of Magell
25、an. It took 38 days to sail through the dangerous strait. We finally arrived at the ocean that Balboa had discovered several years before. I named it the Pacific Ocean because of its calm waters. We found ourselves sailing for weeks across this ocean with no sign of land. Our drinking water stunk an
26、d started to get slimy. My crew and I had to eat rats! Could you imagine eating a rat? Many of my crew suffered from scurvy. One of the other captains deserted me and sailed the San Antonio back to Spain. In March of 1521, we arrived in Guam, an island in the Pacific. From there, we headed for the M
27、oluccas.The End of My Days I never made it to the Spice Islands. I was caught in a war in the Philippine islands. We faced a group of natives who killed me with a poisoned arrow in my foot and a spear through my heart. After I died, my crew burned my ship. Now only 3 ships remained. My body was left
28、 behind. Only two ships actually reached the Spice Islands because the Santiago was sunk in a storm. My crew loaded both ships with a rich cargo and headed for Spain. On the way home, the Portuguese who had claimed the Spice Islands captured the Trinidad. The Victoria was the only ship to make it sa
29、fely back to Spain. Out of the five ships that began the journey, only one ship made the voyage around the world. Out of 250 men, only 18 survivedI was not one of them. 这段时间，英人约翰卡波特父子1497年远航美洲，葡萄牙贵族达伽马同年从非洲南端远航印度，于第二年到达。 1499年，达年，达伽马船队从印度返回里斯本。伽马船队从印度返回里斯本。 Vasco Da Gama Sails Around the Cape of Goo
30、d Hope 同年，意大利人阿美利加维斯普奇(1451?-1512)赴南美探查。1501年又一次探查后，重新发现哥伦布发现的土地：这里不是亚洲，而是一块新大陆。今天这块大陆以他命名。 哥伦布发现新大陆，是约定俗成说法，是从西方角度。哥伦布发现新大陆，是约定俗成说法，是从西方角度。实际上，美洲人在哥伦布前已在那里，他们可能是从亚洲实际上，美洲人在哥伦布前已在那里，他们可能是从亚洲经白令海峡到达。此外，有人认为，欧洲有其他人在哥伦经白令海峡到达。此外，有人认为，欧洲有其他人在哥伦布前到达美洲。关于用阿美利加名字命名美洲，也有几种布前到达美洲。关于用阿美利加名字命名美洲，也有几种说法。说法。Chin
31、ese cartography China beat Columbus to it, perhapsJan 12th 2006 From The Economist print editionAn ancient map that strongly suggests Chinese seamen were first round the worldTHE brave seamen whose great voyages of exploration opened up the world are iconic figures in European history. Columbus foun
32、d the New World in 1492; Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1488; and Magellan set off to circumnavigate the world in 1519. However, there is one difficulty with this confident assertion of European mastery: it may not be true.It seems more likely that the world and all its continents were dis
33、covered by a Chinese admiral named Zheng He, whose fleets roamed the oceans between 1405 and 1435. His exploits, which are well documented in Chinese historical records, were written about in a book which appeared in China around 1418 called “The Marvellous Visions of the Star Raft”.Next week, in Be
34、ijing and London, fresh and dramatic evidence is to be revealed to bolster Zheng Hes case. It is a copy, made in 1763, of a map, dated 1418, which contains notes that substantially match the descriptions in the book. “It will revolutionise our thinking about 15th-century world history,” says Gunnar
35、Thompson, a student of ancient maps and early explorers.The map (shown above) will be unveiled in Beijing on January 16th and at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich a day later. Six Chinese characters in the upper right-hand corner of the map say this is a “general chart of the integrated worl
36、d”. In the lower left-hand corner is a note that says the chart was drawn by Mo Yi Tong, imitating a world chart made in 1418 which showed the barbarians paying tribute to the Ming emperor, Zhu Di. The copyist distinguishes what he took from the original from what he added himself.The map was bought
37、 for about $500 from a small Shanghai dealer in 2001 by Liu Gang, one of the most eminent commercial lawyers in China, who collects maps and paintings. Mr Liu says he knew it was significant, but thought it might be a modern fake. He showed his acquisition to five experienced collectors, who agreed
38、that the traces of vermin on the bamboo paper it is written on, and the de-pigmentation of ink and colours, indicated that the map was more than 100 years old.Mr Liu was unsure of its meaning, and asked specialists in ancient Chinese history for their advice, but none, he says, was forthcoming. Then
39、, last autumn, he read “1421: The Year China Discovered the World”, a book written in 2003 by Gavin Menzies, in which the author makes the controversial claim that Zheng He circumnavigated the world, discovering America on the way. Mr Menzies, who is a former submariner in the Royal Navy and a merch
40、ant banker, is an amateur historian and his theory met with little approval from professionals. But it struck a chord: his book became a bestseller and his 1421 website is very popular. In any event, his arguments convinced Mr Liu that his map was a relic of Zheng Hes earlier voyages. The detail on
41、the copy of the map is remarkable. The outlines of Africa, Europe and the Americas are instantly recognisable. It shows the Nile with two sources. The north-west passage appears to be free of ice. But the inaccuracies, also, are glaring. California is shown as an island; the British Isles do not app
42、ear at all. The distance from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean is ten times greater than it ought to be. Australia is in the wrong place (though cartographers no longer doubt that Australia and New Zealand were discovered by Chinese seamen centuries before Captain Cook arrived on the scene).The comm
43、entary on the map, which seems to have been drawn from the original, is written in clear Chinese characters which can still be easily read. Of the west coast of America, the map says: “The skin of the race in this area is black-red, and feathers are wrapped around their heads and waists.” Of the Aus
44、tralians, it reports: “The skin of the aborigine is also black. All of them are naked and wearing bone articles around their waists.”But this remarkable precision, rather than the errors, is what critics of the Menzies theory are likely to use to question the authenticity of the 1418 map. Mr Menzies
45、 and his followers are naturally extremely keen to establish that the 1763 copy is not a forgery and that it faithfully represents the 1418 original. This would lend weighty support to their thesis: that China had indeed discovered America by (if not actually in) 1421. Mass spectrography analysis to
46、 date the copied map is under way at Waikato University in New Zealand, and the results will be announced in February. But even if affirmative, this analysis is of limited importance since it can do no more than date the copyists paper and inks.Five academic experts on ancient charts note that the 1
47、418 map puts together information that was available piecemeal in China from earlier nautical maps, going back to the 13th century and Kublai Khan, who was no mean explorer himself. They believe it is authentic. The map makes good estimates of the latitude and longitude of much of the world, and rec
48、ognises that the earth is round. “The Chinese were almost certainly aware of longitude before Zheng He set sail,” says Robert Cribbs of California State University. They certainly assumed the world was round. “The format of the map is totally consistent with the level of knowledge that we should exp
49、ect of royal Chinese geographers following the voyages of Zheng He,” says Mr Thompson.Moreover, some of the errors in the 1418 map soon turned up in European maps, the most striking being California drawn as an island. The Portuguese are aware of a world map drawn before 1420 by a cartographer named
50、 Albertin di Virga, which showed Africa and the Americas. Since no Portuguese seamen had yet discovered those places, the most obvious source for the information seems to be European copies of Chinese maps.But this is certainly not a unanimous view among the experts, with many of the fiercest critic
