1、PROGRAM OF ENTRANCE EXAMS IN “GENERAL BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY” FOR MASTERS DEGREE IN FUNDAMENTAL AND SYSTEMIC ECOLOGY Mycology, algology and higher plants Taxon of lower plants: traditional interpretation. Position of lower plants in modern system of organic world. Major groups of lower plants; their di
2、stribution among prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Algae: general description. Cell and thallus structure. Major types of thallus organization in algae. Algal pigments, their role in systematics and adaptation to environment. Reproduction and lifecycles of algae. Brief description of major divisions of al
3、gae. Distribution of algae and their role in environment. Structure of algae from different ecological groups. Role of algae in nature and their practical application. Fungi and fungaceous organisms. General description. Fungi and fungaceous organisms: similarity and major differences. Mycelial cell
4、 structure and feeding. Reproduction and lifecycle. Distribution and role in environment. Role of fungi in cycle of matter and economy. Lichens. Thallus structure. Systematic position of algae and symbiotic fungi in lichens. Relationships between lichen components. Reproduction of lichens. Role of l
5、ichens in nature and their practical application. General description of higher plants. Lifecycle of higher plants. Asexual and sexual reproduction. General body plan in higher plants. Leaf structural components and descriptive morphology. Morphology of shoots and shoot systems. Evolutionary origin
6、of root. Morphology of roots and root systems. Major types of plant tissues. Types of meristems. Collenchyma vs sclerenchyma. Formation of structure of exodermis. Phloem vs xylem. Comparative anatomy of root and stem (based on hey plants). General description of bryophytes. Divisions of Marchantioph
7、yta, Anthocerotophyta and mosses. Spermaphyta. General description. Gymnosperms. Comparative description of major groups (coniferous, gnetaceous, cycades and Ginkgoaceae). General description of angiosperms (flowering plants). Flower. Structure of male and female gametophytes. Dicots vs monocots. Ge
8、neral description of vascular plants. Major groups of vascular Sporophyta. General description of vascular plants. Major groups of vascular Sporophyta. Zoology System Eukaryota and major groups of Protozoa. Modern views on origin of eukaryotic cell: role of Archaea and Eubacteria, symbiotic origin o
9、f organelles, diversity of plastids; flagellar apparatus. Six superkingdoms of Eukaryotes, general description. Lower multicellular organisms. Superphylum Sponges. Modern classification; general description and structure of Bilateria: supertypes Trochozoa, Lophophora, Ecdysozoa and Deuterostomia. Sy
10、stem of phylum Chordata, its organization. System of subphylum Tunicata, general description. Ostracoderms as evolutionary innovation, formation of bone tissue. Morphology of Gnathostomata. Morphofunctional and physiological adaptations to aquatic habitat (based on class of bony fishes). Amphibians
11、as first class of terrestrial vertebrates. Transformation of locomotor and breathing systems, prey catching, blood circulation, water and salt metabolism and sensory organs, due to aerial habitat and gravitation. Reproduction. Anamnia and Anamniota. Morphobiology of reptiles. Morphobiology of birds.
12、 Homeothermia. Morphobiology of mammals. Mechanisms of thermoregulation; breathing, digestive and excretory systems and blood circulation. Reproduction. Anthropology Origin of man. Systematics and description of Primates. Archeological evidence on early hominids; their description and diversity. Ear
13、ly humans. Archanthropos as first human. Culture of early humans. Homo heidelbergensis: history of studies, description and distribution. Neanderthals; hypotheses about their extinction. Origin of modern humans: location and timing. Cromanion as the oldest European Homo sapiens. Role of isolation, c
14、rossbreeding, adaptation, genetic drift and sexual selection in human evolution and formation of modern anthropological variations. Periodization of individual development in humans; stages of ontogenesis and their morpho-functional description. Morphological, physiological and biochemical criteria
15、of biological age. Main factors of growth and development in children and teenagers. Fundamental changes in human development. Acceleration; its manifestation and human accelerated regions. Human constitution as multi-dimensional biomedical issue. Morphological constitution. Adaptive types. Evolutio
16、nary biology Evolutionary factors. Genetic and phenotypic variation. Horizontal gene transfer. Reaction norm. Struggle for existence and natural selection. Population as elementary unit of microevolution. Forms of natural selection. Genetic processes in populations. Notion of species. Allopatric and
17、 sympatric speciation. Adaptive radiation. Basics of evolutionary developmental biology. Fundamental principles of ontogenesis. Gene regulatory networks and ensuring of ontogenetic stability. Complex traits and their evolution. Modularity. Macro- and microevolution. Phylogenesis of taxa. Forms of in
18、terspecies interactions. Coevolution and symbiogenesis. Origin of life. Potential scenarios and stages of abiogenesis. Non-enzymatic DNA and RNA replication. Origin of ribosomes and protein synthesis. Key stages of evolution of life. Geologic time scale. Biosphere crises and mass extinctions; their
19、causes. Ecology Ecology and its methods. Todays use of the term ecology: ecology as synonym of state of environment, as system of public relations in the area of natural resource management and as scientific discipline. Levels of organization of living matter (cell, tissue, organ, organism, populati
20、on, community, ecosystem, landscape, biome and biosphere). Notions of ecosystem (A. Tansley) and biogeocenosis (V.N. Sukachev). Systematic approach in ecology; key provisions of general theory of systems. Environmental factors. Two types of environmental factors: conditions and resources. Range of k
21、ey physical and chemical indicators (temperature, humidity, , salt composition, etc.) for living organisms to exist and reproduce. Limiting availability of necessary resource. Liebigs law. Tolerance curve; optimum and pessimum zones. Stenobiontic and euribiontic species. Multidimentional model of ec
22、ological niche. Interaction of factors. Effects of temperature, light, humidity and salinity on organisms. Population ecology. Static characteristics of population: total number, density and size, age and sex structure. Spatial arrangement of population: random, clumped and regular distribution of o
23、rganisms. Dynamic characteristics of population (growth rate, birthrate, mortality rate and immigration and emigration rate). Age-specific mortality rate. Main types of survival curves. Exponential and logistic models of population growth. r and K selection. Main types of Ramenskiy-Grimes ecological
24、 cenotic strategies. Interactions between populations. Types of interactions (predation, competition, mutualism) and ways of their identification. Theoretical approach to study of competition and predation: Lotka-Volterra equations and their graphical interpretation. Laboratory experiments on compet
25、ition and predation with protozoans, microorganisms and insects. Competition and predation in nature. Symbiosis; examples of key types of symbiotic relationships. Trophic relations and energy flows. Trophic levels: producers, consumers and reducers; trophic chains and nets. Biomass and productivity.
26、 Net and gross primary production. Primary product utilization in trophic chains. Consumption, assimilation, heterotrophic respiration and secondary production. Pasture and detrital food chains. Net ecosystem production. Biogeochemical cycles. Carbon cycle of biosphere. Content of carbon in various
27、forms in lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biota. Multi-year fluctuations of atmospheric 2 and climate change. Increase of atmospheric 2 during last hundred years. Greenhouse effect: causes and consequences. International agreements (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and Kyoto Protoco
28、l). Oxygen cycle of biosphere. Atmospheric free oxygen; its origin. Ozone layer and its depletion. International agreements for protection of ozone layer. Nitrogen cycle of biosphere. Nitrogen fixation, role of microorganisms in transformation of nitrogen compounds. Nitrogen as resource limiting pri
29、mary production in ocean. Manufacturing and use of nitrogen fertilizers, as compared with natural nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen accumulation in ground water. Nitrogen oxide emissions by industries. Further transformation of nitrogen oxides in atmosphere. Phosphorus cycle of biosphere. Absence of gaseo
30、us phosphorus compounds in atmosphere. Runoff of phosphorus from land to sea. Consumption of phosphorus by living organisms as compared with nitrogen and carbon. Evolution of biosphere. Connection between biological evolution and changes in abiogenic components of biosphere. Role of changes in atmos
31、phere composition in evolution of biosphere. Internal and external causes of mass extinctions. Ice Ages and interglacial periods. Human impact on biosphere. Human population dynamics over last 10,000 years, crucial events (Neolithic and Industrial Revolutions) causing increase of population growth r
32、ate. Ecological footprint as integral characteristic of human impact on biosphere. Countries ranked by ecological footprint. Cytology Cell theory and its provisions. Notion of cell. Methods of cell biology. Methods of microscopy (light, fluorescent, phase-contrast, electronic and video-microscopy).
33、Immunocytochemical and cytochemical staining. Radiography. Molecular hybridization. Cell and tissue culture. Structure and function of cell nucleus. Structure of chromatin. Structure of chromosomes. Cell cycle and its phases; chromosome cycle. Levels of chromatin and chromosome packaging. Euchromati
34、n and heterochromatin. Role of histones and non-histone proteins in chromatin packaging. Histone modifications. Karyotype. Chromosome structure. Types of differential staining of chromosomes. Nuclear protein matrix. Nuclear subdomains. Nucleolus and nucleolar organizer; its components, ultrastructur
35、e, proteins and role in ribosomal RNA synthesis and formation of ribosomal subunits. Cajal bodies, (speckles) and PML. Chromosome territories in interphase nucleus. Nuclear membrane. Nuclear-cytoplasmic transport. Cell membrane components. Structure and properties of biological membranes. Plasmatic
36、membranes. Chemical composition, structure and functions. Transport of low-molecular and high-molecular compounds. Endocytosis. Transcytosis. Cellular interactions. Cell adhesion. Cell adhesion proteins. Specialized cell contacts. Protein synthesis and topogenesis. Structure of ribosomes. Polysomes.
37、 Structure of granular ER. Synthesis of secretory, membrane and lysosome proteins in granular ER. Signal sequences. SRP particles. Mechanism of co-translational protein transport to ER membranes and cisterns. Protein modification, folding and targeting. Golgi apparatus. Organization of Golgi apparat
38、us. Protein modification and targeting. Role in glycosaminoglycan synthesis. Proteoglycans. Vacuolar pathways and mechanisms of vesicle targeting and fusion with membrane components. Anterograde and retrograde transport. Exocytosis. Smooth ER. Morphology and role in synthesis of lipids, steroid horm
39、ones, glycogen, calcium storage and detoxification (role of cytochrome -450). Cellular digestive system. Lysosomes. Classification, Patterns of formation. Mechanism of autophagosome and autolysosome formation. Cellular power supply. Mitochondria. Chemical composition, structure and functions. Mitoch
40、ondrial biogenesis. Origin of mitochondria. Photosynthesis. Chloroplast structure and functions. Cytoskeleton components. Actin microfilaments. Actin monomers and isoforms; polymerization in vitro. Structure of actin filament. Localization and functions of actin filaments. Actin filament-associated
41、proteins. Myosins: structure, functions, localization and role in muscle and non-muscle mobility. Intermediate filaments: classification, properties, organization and localization. Structure and function of microtubules, centrosome, centrioles, basal bodies and axonem. Tubulin polymerization. MAPs.
42、Families of kinesins and dyneins. Centriolar cycle. Two ways of centriole formation. Non-centrosomal microtubule-organizing centers. Cilia and flagella. Mitosis. Phases of mitosis. Changes in chromosome structure; role of condensines and cohesins. Mitotic spindle; its structure, composition, organiz
43、ation and formation. Kinetochore; its structure and protein composition. Mechanism of chromosome movement. Anaphase A and anaphase B. Telophase. Cytokinesis. Pathology of mitosis. Evolution of mitosis. Meiosis. Formation of sex cells. Phases of meiosis. Prophase I of meiosis. Synaptonemal comples. M
44、echanism of crossing-over. Chiasms. Lampbrush chromosomes. First meiotic division, reduction of allele number. Second meiotic division, separation of homologous chromatids reduction of chromosome number. Maturation of sex cells. Cell cycle regulation. Phases of cell cycle. Models and methods for stu
45、dy of cell cycle. General laws of cell cycle and its phases. Exogenous and endogenous regulators. Endogenous regulation. Exogenous regulators: growth factors and cytokines. Cell death. Key concepts: programmed cell death, apoptosis and necrosis, classification. Apoptosis: manifestations in cells, me
46、thods of detection, biochemical and morphological signs and molecular mechanisms. Autophagic cell death. Programmed necrosis. Structure and functions of plant and bacterial cells. Plant cells: chemical composition, structure and formation of cell wall. Types of plastids. Chloroplasts. Cytoskeleton.
47、Mitosis. Plasmodesmata. Bacterial cells; their structure. Bacterial nucleoid. Photosynthetic components of bacteria. Basal body, flagellum and bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell division. Histology Definition of tissue. Classification of tissues based on their development (phylogenesis and ontogene
48、sis), functions and structure. Physiological and reparative regeneration of tissues. Notions of cell population and differon. Differentiation factors. Embryonic and fetal/postnatal (tissue-specific) stem cells. Epithelial tissue. General description and morphofunctional classification of epithelia.
49、Exocrine and endocrine glands. Hormones and other signal molecules Tissues of internal environment (blood, lymph and connective tissue). Origin, general description of structure and functions. Blood cells and hematopoiesis, Hematopoietic organs. Regulation of hematopoiesis; factors and structures en
50、suring hematopoiesis. Cellular basis of immune response. Humoral and cellular basis of inborn and adaptive immunity. Lymphocytes as cells of immune system. General description of organization of central organs (bone marrow and thymus) and peripheral organs (non-encapsulated lymphoid follicles, lymph
