1、第六讲第六讲 古古印度文明印度文明中的知识中的知识 主梵天指示婆罗门从事祭祀、科学和收取赠礼。他把畜牧业、商业和农业交给了吠舍，而首陀罗，主则命令从事手工业和做奴仆。 -伐育普兰那第八卷印度河和印度印度河和印度 印度河发源于中国境内冈底斯山，在印度河发源于中国境内冈底斯山，在支流汇聚中向西南方向穿过巴基斯坦，注支流汇聚中向西南方向穿过巴基斯坦，注入阿拉伯海。这里气候干燥，河谷不远处入阿拉伯海。这里气候干燥，河谷不远处就有沙漠。东部的恒河发源于喜马拉雅山就有沙漠。东部的恒河发源于喜马拉雅山雪峰丛中，它的支流由西北向东南横贯雨雪峰丛中，它的支流由西北向东南横贯雨量充沛、森林茂密的次大陆东北部，注入
2、量充沛、森林茂密的次大陆东北部，注入孟加拉湾。次大陆南部是德干高原，这里孟加拉湾。次大陆南部是德干高原，这里气候炎热，森林稠密，矿产丰富。气候炎热，森林稠密，矿产丰富。The India 印度河和恒河，这两条南亚的 大河，正如西亚的底格里斯河和 幼发拉底河、东亚的黄河和长 江、非洲的尼罗河一样，也是 哺育人类古老农业文明的摇 篮。考古学发现，先在巴基斯 坦境内产生的印度河流域文 明，是世界上最早的文明之一。哈拉巴文化 Harappan World 印度河畔的摩亨约摩亨约达罗（达罗（ Mojenjo-daro 梵语死人之丘之意 ）和上溯约644公里的哈拉巴两个古代城市遗址城市遗址考察，表明这里在
3、公元前2350年至公元前1750年便进入青铜时代，当时人们种植大麦、小麦、水稻、豌豆、甜瓜、枣椰、胡麻和棉花，养有水牛、山羊、绵羊、猪、狗和象。棉花对印度人，就像蚕丝对中国人，是最好的服饰原料。 这些经过规划的城市，用砖和木材建筑，是世界最早砖建房屋。建筑物地方是当时城市国家。摩亨约达罗街道基本是南北或东西走向，街道转弯处建筑物墙角砌成圆弧形，公共建筑有大浴池、卫城和粮仓，富人住处有楼房和庭院，浴池和厕所的陶制污水管道通向街心的石砌下水道。印度河流域青铜器有刀、斧、镰、锯、矛和剑，表明已掌握锻打、铸造和焊接技术。还发现标准精确一致的砝码和尺，表明已采用十进制记数。刻有文字或图画的象牙和石印章表
4、明，社会关系已相当复杂。印章还被打在包装货物的封口上，而货物最远被运到两河流域。The lost History 由于还不甚清楚的原因，印度河最早的文明突然衰亡了。至今发现的500多个古老字母还没有释读成功，城市衰落的原因也仍然不完全清楚。Although agriculture seems to have come late to India, arriving sometime around 5000 BC, India was one of the first regions to give birth to civilization. Only a few centuries afte
5、r the first Mesopotamian cities sprang up, a people living along the northern reaches of the Indus River discovered urbanization, metalwork, and writing. It is a mysterious civilization and one with no discernible continuity, for it thrived for just several centuries and then disappeared. The Indo-E
6、uropean immigrants who settled the region did not adopt most of the aspects of this civilization, and what precisely they did adopt is difficult to ascertain. So while Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Yellow River civilizations lasted for millenia and left their mark on all subsequent cultures, the Indus
7、 River civilization seems to have been a false start. For the overwhelming majority of human history, this early culture was truly a lost civilization. The mounds which stood where great cities once thrived excited interest in observers, but no one in their wildest dreams could have imagined that be
8、neath those large mounds lay cities that had been lost to human memory. In the 1920s, excavations began on one of these mounds in Harappa in Pakistan. While the archaeologists expected to find something, they did not imagine that a city lay beneath the earth. Archaeologists would later discover anot
9、her large city to the recovery of at least eighty villages and towns related to this newly discovered civilization. They named it Harappan after the first city they discovered, but it is more commonly called the Indus River civilization. While we have stones and tools and fragments and bones, we rea
10、lly have no ones voice or experience from the bustling days of the great Harappan cities. We dont know who the people were who built and lived there. We dont know, either, when they first built their cities; some scholars argue that Harappan civilization arises around 2250 BC, while others argue tha
11、t it can be dated back to 2500 BC or earlier. been built right upon the shores of the river. The Indus, however, is destructive and unpredictable in its floods, and the cities were frequently levelled by the forces of nature. Mohenjo-Daro in the south, where the flooding can be fairly brutal, was re
12、built six times that we know about; Harappa in the north was rebuilt five times. The Harappans were an agricultural people whose economy was almost entirely dominated by horticulture. Massive granaries were built at each city, and there most certainly was an elaborate bureaucracy to distribute this
13、wealth of food. The Indus River valley is relatively dry now, but apparently it was quite wet when the Harappans thrived there. We know this because the bricks that they built their cities with were fired bricks; since sun-dried bricks are cheaper and easier to make, we can only assume that over-abu
14、ndant humidity and precipitation prevented them from taking the cheaper way out. In addition, many of the Harappan seals have pictures of animals that imply a wet and marshy environment, such as rhinoceroses, elephants, and tigers. The Harappans also had a wide variety of domesticated animals: camel
15、s, cats, dogs, goats, sheep, and buffalo. Their cities were carefully planned and laid out; they are, in fact, the first people to plan the building of their cities. Whenever they rebuilt their cities, they laid them out precisely in the same way the destroyed city had been built. The pathways withi
16、n the city are laid out in a perpendicular criss-cross fashion; most of the city consisted of residences. Life in the Harappan cities was apparently quite good. Although living quarters were cramped, which is typical of ancient cities, the residents nevertheless had drains, sewers, and even latrines
17、. There is no question that they had an active trade with cultures to the west. Several Harappan seals have been found in excavations of Sumerian cities, as well as pictures of animals that in no way could have existed in Mesopotamia, such as tigers. There is not, however, a wealth of Mesopotamian a
18、rtifacts in Harappan cities. We know nothing of the religion of the Harappans. Unlike in Mesopotamia or Egypt, we have discovered no building that so much as hints that it might be a temple or involve any kind of public worship. The bulk of public buildings in the city seemed to be solely oriented t
19、owards the economy and making life comfortable for the Harappans. We do, however, have a number of tantalizing figures on various seals and statues. What we gather from these figures (and we can not gather much), is that the Harappans probably exercised some sort of goddess worship. There is, howeve
20、r, some sort of male god (maybe) that has the head of a man with the horns of a bull. In addition, we believe from various artifacts that the Harappans also may have worshipped natural objects or animistic forces, but the circumstances of this worship can only be guessed at. We know that the Harappa
21、ns were eventually supplanted by waves of migrations of Indo-Europeans. These new peoples, however, did not seem to adopt the religious practices of the Harappans, so it is not possible to reconstruct Harappan religion through the religion of the Vedic peoples, that is, the Indo-Europeans who constr
22、ucted the rudimentary Indian religion represented by the Vedas. Right at the heart of the mystery, like a person speaking behind sound-proof Like the civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece, Harappa grew on the floodplains of a rich and life-giving river, the Indus. The original cities and m
23、any of the towns seemed to have glass, are the numerous writings on the artifacts that have been unearthed. Harappan writing was a pictographic script, or at least seems to be; as of yet, however, no one has figured out how to decipher it or even what language it might be rendering. The logical cand
24、idate is that the Harappans spoke a Dravidian language, but that conclusion, which may not be true, has not helped anybody decipher the script. Like the rest of Harappan civilization, the writing was lost to human memory after the disappearance of the Harappans. And finally they disappeared. And the
25、y disappeared without a trace. Some believe that they were overrun by the war-like Aryans, the Indo-Europeans who, like a storm, rushed in from Euro-Asia and overran Persia and northern India. Some believe that the periodic and frequently destructive flooding of the Indus finally took its toll on th
26、e economic health of the civilization. It is possible that the periodic changes of course that the Indus undergoes also contributed to its decline. All we know is that somewhere between 1800 and 1700 BC, the Harappan cities and towns were abandoned and finally reclaimed by the rich soil they had spr
27、ung from. 吠陀时代的知识吠陀时代的知识 Aryan MigrationVedas are composed 住在中亚一带同伊朗人同源 的一支操印欧语的半游牧部 落-雅利安人，在印度河谷 城市衰落前不久，越过阿富 汗的兴都库什山口来到这里。通过征服当地居民开始生活，大概是哈拉巴文化衰落的原因。关于这一点还没有真实可靠的证据，但世代流传下来反映公元前1400年至公元前600年之间社会生活和历史的宗教文献-四部吠陀，勾画了一个略图：自认出身高贵的雅利安人征服了低鼻梁、浅黑皮肤、不说同一种语言、不敬同一个神灵的当地人，把他们变为奴隶。Warriors, Bhimbetaka Rock Dea
28、th of Abhimanyu PaintingThe Aryan Invaders， or Migrates 雅利安人可能未到之前就掌握了用铁的知识，可能还有车辆，有一定技术优势。 在雅利安人的征服之后，印度河流域由铜器时代向铁器时代转变，犁被创造出来，牛被用来拉犁，人工灌溉和施肥的技术也出现了。 伴随技术进步，雅利安人的势力由印度河流域扩张到恒河流域，大小部落也变成林立的奴隶制国家。瓦尔那制度瓦尔那制度 这些国家里，征服者和被征服者按照种族和社会地位划分为四个瓦尔那四个瓦尔那：掌握神权的贵族婆罗门，掌握军事和行政权的贵族刹帝利，一般劳动人民吠舍(中下层平民)和奴隶首陀罗。 各个瓦尔那的地位
29、按血统世代相传，相互间界限森严，不通婚，交往受到限制。尽管以后历史上印度民族成分、文化和宗教增加大量内容，但种姓制度在社会生活中打下的烙印，一直残存到今天。Vedas: Knowledge, In Sanskrit 吠陀-知识和学问的意思，其中包含大量献给战神因陀罗、自然之神伐楼那、天神帝奥斯、太阳神苏利耶、人的护佑神毗湿奴、火神阿耆尼和其他神的颂歌，也包含婆罗门学者的大量知识。吠陀包括梨俱吠陀、娑摩吠陀、夜柔吠陀、阿达婆吠陀等四部。其中梨俱吠陀约出现于公元前2000年，乃诗人集体创作，共10卷1 028首给神的颂歌，其中甘婆子所作伐楼那神颂对宇宙和自然的描述十分深刻：“彼以摩耶，揭示宇宙；既
30、摄黑夜，又施黎明；随顺彼意，三时制定；其余怨敌，愿俱消灭。”这里的摩耶是幻现的意思，三时是指过去、现在和未来。 Knowledge in Vedas 吠陀告诉人们，当时印度人已把1年分为12个月、360天，并有置闰方法。人们认为天地的中央是须弥山，日月均绕它运行，太阳绕山一周为一昼夜时间。人们对恒星作了细致观察，把黄道附近的恒星划为27宿(月站)。 吠陀也记载了发烧、 咳嗽、水肿、肺病和麻 风病等许多疾病，以及 一些治病方法。 吠陀时代后期，婆罗门祭司们开始探讨世界本原。水、地、火、风四元素，再加上空，共五大元素，被看成世界的本原。在此基础上，产生了解释自然现象的自然说、自性说和转变说。婆罗门
31、教是最有权威的真理主宰。 据婆罗门教义，世间万物都是宇宙的灵魂梵天的化身。人的灵魂也来自梵天，但它贪恋尘世，不断投生转世，受轮回之苦。这一观念也渗透在后来产生的佛教和耆那教中。 They called themselves the noble ones or the superior ones. Their names are lost; their tribal names are lost. But when they found themselves conquerors, they gave themselves the name superior or noble. They wer
32、e a tribal and nomadic peoples living in the far reaches of Euro-Asia in hostile steppe lands barely scratching out a living. They were unquestionably a tough people, and they were fierce and war-like. Their religion reflects it dominated as it is by a storm-god or sky-god that enjoins warfare and c
33、onquest. This god was called something like Dyaus, a word related to Zeus, deus (the Latin word for god), deva (the Sanskrit word for god), and, of course, the English word divine. Their culture was oriented around warfare, and they were very good at it. They were superior on horseback and rushed in
34、to battle in chariots. They were a tribal people ruled over by a war-chief, or raja (the Latin word rex (king) comes from the same root word, along with the English regal). Somewhere in the early centuries of the second millenium BC, they began to migrate southwards in waves of steady conquest acros
35、s the face of Persia and the lands of India. There, they would take on the name superior or noble to distinguish themselves from the people they conquered. Their name is derived from the Indo-European root word, ar, meaning noble. In Sanskrit, they were the Aryas (Aryans); but that root, ar, would a
36、lso serve as the foundation of the name of the conquered Persian territories, Iran. This concept of nobility, in fact, seems to lie at the heart of Indo-European consciousness, for it appears in another countrys name, Ireland, or Eire. You can bet, however, that when a people go around calling thems
37、elves superior that it spells bad news for other people. And there is no question that they were bad news for the southern Asians. They swept over Persia with lightening speed, and spread across the northern river plains of India. Their nature as a warlike, conquering people are still preserved in V
38、edic religion, the foundation of Hinduism. In the Rig Veda, the collection of praises to the gods, the god Indra towers over the poetry as a conquering god, one that smashes cities and slays enemies. The invading Aryans were originally nomadic peoples, not agricultural. They penetrated India from th
39、e north-west, settling first in the Indus valley. Unlike the Harappans, however, they eventually concentrated their populations along the Ganges floodplain. The Ganges, unlike the Indus, is far milder and more predictable in its flooding. It must have been a paradise to a people from the dry steppes
40、 of central Asia and Iran, a paradise full of water and forest. When they arrived, the vast northern plains were almost certainly densely forested. Where now bare fields stretch to the horizon, when the Aryans arrived lush forests stretched to those very same horizons. Clearing the forests over the
41、centuries was an epic project and one that is still preserved in Indian literature. The Aryans, or Vedic civilization were a new start in Indian culture. Harappa was more or less a dead end (at least as far as we know); the Aryans adopted almost nothing of Harappan culture. They built no cities, no
42、states, no granaries, and used no writing. Instead they were a warlike people that organized themselves in individual tribal, kinship units, the jana. The jana was ruled over by a war-chief. These tribes spread quickly over northern India and the Deccan. In a process that we do not understand, the b
43、asic social unit of Aryan culture, the jana, slowly developed from an organization based on kinship to one based on geography. The jana became a janapada, or nation and the jana-rajya , or tribal kingdom, became the jana-rajyapada, or national kingdom. So powerfully ingrained into Indian culture is
44、the jana-pada , that Indians still define themselves mainly by their territorial origins. All the major territories of modern India, with their separate cultures and separate languages, can be dated back to the early jana-padas of Vedic India. The earliest history of the Aryans in India is called th
45、e Rigvedic Period (1700-1000 BC) after the religious praise poems that are the oldest pieces of literature in India. These poems, the Rig Veda, are believed to represent the most primitive layer of Indo-European religion and have many characteristics in common with Persian religion since the two peo
46、ples are closely related in time. In this early period, their population was restricted to the Punjab in the northern reaches of the Indus River and the Yamuna River near the Ganges. They maintained the Aryan tribal structure, with a raja ruling over the tribal group in tandem with a council. Each j
47、ana seems to have had a chief priest; the religion was focused almost entirely on a series of sacrifices to the gods. The Rigvedic peoples originally had only two social classes: nobles and commoners. Eventually, they added a third: Dasas , or darks. These were, we presume, the darker-skinned people
48、 they had conquered. By the end of the Rigvedic period, social class had settled into four rigid castes: the caturvarnas, or four colors. At the top of the caturvarnas were the priests, or Brahmans. Below the priests were the warriors or nobles (Kshatriya), the craftspeople and merchants (Vaishya),
49、and the servants (Shudra), who made up the bulk of society. These economic classes were legitimated by an elaborate religious system and would be eventually subdivided into a huge number of economic sub-classes which we call castes. Social class by the end of the Rigvedic period became completely in
50、flexible; there was no such thing as social mobility. In the early centuries of Later Vedic Period or Brahmanic Period (1000-500 BC), the Aryans migrated across the Doab, which is a large plain which separates the Yamuna River from the Ganges. It was a difficult project, for the Doab was thickly for
