1、临床微生物学 Clinical Microbiology,MICROBIOLOGY,Study of microorganisms : visible through a microscope Size in m (10-6 m),MICROORGANISMS,WHERE ?,Soil Air Water Food,IN THE ENVIRONMENT :,PATHOGENICITY,Obligate pathogenic bacteria : Multiplication and dissemination within the organism Resistance to immune s
2、ystem Enzyme secretion : lesions in host tissues Occasional toxin secretions,IN SICK PEOPLE :,PATHOGENICITY,Bacteria do not leave the site of infection and it is the toxin which spreads throughout the organism and causes disease Eg : - Clostridium tetani (tetanus) - Corynebacterium diphteriae (dipht
3、heria) Food poisoning : - Staphylococcus aureus - Clostridium botulinum Botulism : ingestion of food in which C. botulinum has developed a toxin (not eliminated in the digestive tract) paralysis after neuromuscular attack,Toxigenic bacteria,Opportunistic pathogenic bacteria : Which bacteria ? Saprop
4、hytic bacteria or from normal flora Usually nonpathogenic When ? Immunodepression in host Rupture of natural barrier,Ex : E. coli, present in normal flora and sometimes causes urinary infections, septicemia.,PATHOGENICITY,WHERE ?,YES Mouth Ears Respiratory tract Intestinal tract Genital tract Skin ,
5、NO Blood Cerebro-spinal-fluid (CSF) Urine,IN HEALTHY PEOPLE,Normal Flora : con with environment,Always sterile : closed cavities,THE CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY LAB,THE AIM,Find the right treatment for the patient,?,HOW ?,Isolate the bacteria responsible for the infection Identify this bacteria Test its r
6、esistance to different antibiotics,DIFFERENT STEPS OF BACTERIOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS,Specimen collection Microscopic examination Culture Identification Susceptibility testing,标本采集和运送是细菌培养成功的最最重要的关键! 但由于标本的采集和运送常有护士或医生或病人自己完成,所以也是最不容易做好的事情,而且不知道问题所在之处,由此引发的最主要后果是阳性率下降,这也是临床医生最不能接受的问题,,SPECIMEN COLLECTION,
7、标本收集、运送及处理,注意事项: 1、收集真正病灶处的标本,且不得受到邻近区域微生物的污染 2、不要在标本中添加任何防腐剂,以免影响有意义的致病菌的分离。 3、立即(2h内)把标本送到细菌试验室,不可拖延。防止部分苛养菌死亡以及标本中正常菌群繁殖而影响致病菌分离。应注明标本收集时间。 4、尽可能在病人服用抗菌药或伤口局部处理之前收集标本。若已服用抗菌药物,应记录于申请单上。 5、在检验申请单上医生应提供患者的临床资料,以协助检验医师选择合适的培养基和培养环境。,SPECIMEN COLLECTION,Multimicrobial specimens : Specimens : cutaneou
8、s digestive vaginal, urethral respiratory tract . Observation of many different bacteria Monomicrobial specimens : Specimens : CSF, blood, urine Observation of one bacteria only,Pathogenic agent only,Normal Flora + Pathologic Agent,常见临床标本的微生物学检查,血培养的临床意义,败血症是一个非常严重的问题.死亡率高 血液中的微生物在3分钟内到达每个器官. 血培养是最好
9、的工具帮助它们用药、减少死亡率,Septicemia,微生物或其产物在血液中引起疾病,1.启动抗生素治疗前采集血培养标本,苛氧菌 例如:HACEK群细菌包括嗜血杆菌属、伴放线凝聚杆菌 、心杆菌属、 艾肯菌属、金杆菌属 急诊,2. 采血量最关键,而非采血时机,对于检测脓毒症的病原菌来说,抽足量的血样本比抽血时间更重要。 10毫升/瓶,循环的 CFU/ml vs. 病原体,成人 (12 岁):, 1 CFU/ml,金黄色葡萄球菌,27%,铜绿假单胞菌,55%,大肠埃希菌,62%,所有菌种,40%,From Mayo Clinic, Boston City Hosp., National Child
10、rens Hosp., Univ. of Washington, Seattle.,3. 正规血培养要以”套”采血,成人每个脓毒症病程需抽 2-4套血培养 需氧瓶 + 厌氧瓶为一套 两套指两个采血部位(不同静脉穿刺点),FA + FN 对已经使用抗菌药物治疗的患者 用含活性炭的抗菌药物吸附瓶,SA + SN 未使用抗菌药物治疗的患者 用标准血培养瓶,Riley J.A., Heiter B.J., Bourbeau O.O. Comparison of recovery of blood culture isolates from two BacT/ALERT FAN aerobic bloo
11、d culture bottles with recovery from one FAN aerobic bottle and one FAN anaerobic bottle. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:213-217,接种厌氧血培养瓶的意义,与单独只进行需氧瓶培养相比,需氧和厌氧瓶搭配培养可以检出更多的葡萄球菌、肺炎链球菌、肠杆菌科细菌和厌氧菌。,4.皮肤消毒,静脉穿刺部位的消毒: 成人、2月小儿选用葡萄糖酸氯己啶(chlorhexidine gluconate,CHG)或2碘酊。 2月时不推荐葡萄糖酸氯己啶。,随着时间推移败血症病原菌的变迁,% 住院患者血培养阳
12、性结果,#1 pathogen,From UW, Madison and G.Washington Univ., St. Louis,皮肤不是无菌的; 定植细菌“污染”血培养,血培养存在的主要问题,如果皮肤定植的细菌没有被杀死,这些细菌将通过针头被吸入血培养瓶并在瓶中生长 这些细菌(主要为凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌) 引起导管相关性败血症 (住院患者血培养第一位) 医生不能将真的凝固酶葡萄球菌感染和皮肤定植菌“污染”相区分,因此他们用万古霉素治疗患者,污染细菌,血培养污染定义为在几次血培养中单个血培养下列细菌阳性: 凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌 棒状杆菌 微球菌 丙酸杆菌 芽孢杆菌,5.血培养的污染率,通过静脉
13、穿刺,由皮肤定植菌可引起的污染。污染率至少应控制3%以下。 当污染率增加时,应该单独计算出每一位采血者及每一个病区的污染率,有针对性地对临床护士进行培训。 总之,可以通过适当的皮肤和瓶盖消毒,从静脉穿刺取血,并通过培训和干预措施等来防止污染。,6.患者血管内导管采集血液,经插管采集的血液污染(假阳性)风险高 可以通过定量培养或差异报警时间(自动化血培养仪) ,比较患者血管内导管抽血培养结果与外周血培养结果,来判断是否为导管相关性血流感染。 Both Blood Cultures must be drawn at the same time Differential TTP (DTTP)差异报警
14、时间,7.导管尖端培养,如果没有配套的经皮穿刺静脉血培养,不要送检导管尖端培养。,血标本的收集注意事项,血培养瓶常温保存,不要冷藏。接种标本后请立即送到实验室检测。如果是夜班采集标本,可以放室温保存(不要冷藏或者放到孵箱内)。,脑脊髓液微生物学检查,标本采集: 通过腰椎穿刺术以无菌手续收集35ml于无菌小瓶或无菌试管中。一般采用第二管CSF做微生物培养。收集CSF后在常温下15分钟内必须送到实验室。,注意事项,CSF切勿放入冰箱,否则会使致病菌死亡 当CSF收集量少时,应首先做微生物学检查,再做其他检查,以免标本被污染。 应在用抗菌药物之前采集标本,浆膜腔积液的微生物学检查,标本采集: 浆膜腔
15、积液包括胸腔积液或胸水、腹腔积液或腹水、心包腔积液、关节腔积液、鞘膜腔积液等。多因浆膜腔发生循环障碍、炎症、癌浸润等病变,腔内液体渗漏增加所致。一般由临床医师在无菌操作下穿刺抽取,810ml于血培养瓶中。,尿道感染,每年850万例尿路感染, 90%为女性 1/2.5个妇女在一生中会得UTI 下行性感染:血流肾脏膀胱(金黄色葡萄球菌,酵母菌,结核分枝杆菌) 上行性感染:尿道膀胱肾盂 血流,尿液的微生物学检查,标本采集 1、中段尿:是临床上最多采用的方法,简单易行,无感染的危险。但不适用厌氧菌培养。 2、肾盂尿采集法 3、耻骨上膀胱穿刺术,尿液的微生物学检查,尿细菌计数 是诊断泌尿系感染的细菌学标
16、准,一般认为,革兰阳性菌含菌数每毫升104CFU/ml,革兰阴性菌含菌数每毫升105CFU/ml 可以肯定为感染。 还应与尿常规结果进行分析。,尿路感染病原菌,粪便微生物学检查,标本采集: 1、自然排便采集法 2、直肠试子法,PATHOGENICITY :,Enterobacteriaceae Enterococci Yeasts Anaerobes.,Salmonella, Shigella E. coli, Yersinia, Campylobacter Vibrio cholerae Toxin : Clostridium, S. aureus,DIGESTIVE TRACT :,脓性分
17、泌物微生物学检查,标本采集 1、开放性感染和已破溃的化脓灶:标本采集前先用灭菌生理盐水冲洗表面污染菌,再用棉试子蘸取或注射器吸取脓性分泌物 2、感染与体腔或外界相同的部位 3、闭锁性脓肿,厌氧培养标本,1.痰标本的厌氧培养标本采集:必须用气管穿刺法获得痰液,从口腔吐出的痰标本不能用于厌氧培养。 2.尿标本的厌氧培养标本采集:耻骨上膀胱穿刺获得尿标本可用于厌氧菌培养 3便标本厌氧培养标本采集: 可用排出的便做厌氧培养但也应少与空气接触。 4.脓性分泌物:深部和粘膜附近的感染应同时做厌氧菌培养和需氧菌培养,直接镜检可以快速了解标本中有菌和大致菌量初步判断是否存在优势致病菌,还可以根据其形态、结构和
18、染色性对病原菌进行初步分类并提供诊断思路 :厌氧菌引起的伤口感染、 便涂片菌群失调、痰涂片是否为合格标本等。 对于某些致病菌,标本涂片镜检具有重要的早期诊断意义 :TB,MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION,MOTILITY,1- No flagellum : non-motile Bacteria,3- Many flagella : motile bacteria Motion :,2- One flagellum : motile bacteria Motion :,Gram +,Violet,Gram -,Pink,2 - GRAM STAINING,The most com
19、monly used staining technique in bacteriology Used to classify bacteria,MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION :,SHAPE,COCCI,BACILLI,COCCO-BACILLI,CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPING,COCCI,BACILLI,diplococci,chains,clusters,diplobacilli,coccobacilli,结核分枝杆菌: 抗酸染色,脑脊液墨汁染色,Nutrient agar Right atmosphere Right temperature,To
20、obtain bacterial growth, it is necessary to : Meet the requirements of bacteria :,CULTURE,培养基的选择,根据目的分类: 1、营养培养基:加入了营养成分,如血液等,促进营养要求高的细菌生长(肺炎链球菌)。 2、选择性培养基:某种特殊化学物质,能阻止一类细菌生长但不影响另一类细菌繁殖。(EMB抑制革兰阳性菌生长) 3、鉴别培养基:加入某种特殊化学物质,使生长的细菌呈现不同颜色。(乳糖发酵阳性大肠埃希菌在SS上呈现粉红色菌落,志贺菌无色) 4、增菌培养基:含有特殊成分适合分离菌生长,不适合其它菌生长,通常用于标
21、本细菌数量少、生长缓慢的细菌。(碱性蛋白胨水能让霍乱弧菌繁殖,其它菌生长不良),MULTIPLICATION,Multiplication rate depends on temperature :,Temperature,37C,4C,65C,Speed,1 - aerobes Require the presence of oxygen Their energy is obtained by using oxygen in the air : Respiration (oxidative metabolism) eg : Pseudomonas, Mycobacteria,Enteroba
22、cteriaceae,CULTURE,2 - anaerobes Can only develop in the absence of air. Oxygen is toxic for this type of bacteria. All the energy produced comes from fermentation (fermentative metabolism). eg : Fusobacterium, Eubacterium 3- Microaerophilic bacteria Prefer a O2 reduced atmosphere. eg : Campylobacte
23、r, Mycoplasma 4 - Capnophilic bacteria Some bacteria prefer a CO2-enriched atmosphere, it is essential for others. eg : Neisseria gonorrhoeae,CULTURE,CULTURE, Bacterial growth phases,24Hrs,48Hrs,IDENTIFICATION,Isolation,1,4,3,2,IDENTIFICATION, Second step : IDENTIFICATION Bacteria are classified acc
24、ording to : Family Genus Species example : Enterobacteriaceae Escherichia coli,IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA,E. coli,Orientation tests results : - Morphology - Gram - Catalase, oxidase will define the family or genus, and enable you to choose the correct identification strip Examples : Cocci, Gram +, C
25、atalase + Staphylococci Cocci, Gram +, Catalase - Streptococci Bacilli, Gram -, Oxidase - Enterobacteriaceae,IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA,Applications Identification media in tubes Identification strips e.g. : API strips, ID 32, VITEK 1 / 2 cards,IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA,Identification on chromogeni
26、c media :,Interest : time and money saved,IDENTIFICATION OF BACTERIA, Study of antigenic characteristics immunologic reaction : antigen - antibody Antibodies fixed on latex particles Slide agglutination in presence of the corresponding antigen (bacteria.) - using isolated colonies - or directly usin
27、g the specimens. Advantage : rapidity (immediate reaction), Identification using molecular biology : Identification of bacteria by a specific DNA fragment using colonies or directly using the specimen eg : Gen Probe Mycobacteria, Gonococci, Chlamydia. Interest : Specificity, time saving,IDENTIFICATI
28、ON OF BACTERIA,Add 1.0 l matrix solution,MALDI-TOF MS System Workflow,Step 1,Step 2,Step 3 Air dry for 1-2 min.,Step 4 Load,Step 5 Create spectra,Target slide,NOTE: Other sample types: sediment from positive blood cultures sediment from certain specimen (e.g. urines),Bacteria, molds, yeasts, mycobac
29、teria,Laser,样品靶板,飞行管,检测器,质谱图,真空系统,样品靶板入口,几秒钟即可得到结果,基质辅助激光解吸电离-飞行时间质谱 (MALDI-TOF MS),每个样品测定时间仅需几秒,算上预处理样品,每小时可测 150个样品,Mycobacterium butyricum 丁酸分枝杆菌,MALDI Biotyper 微生物快速鉴定与分类 操作简单、快速,1.帮助临床医师选择最佳药物治疗,避免由于抗生素使用不当造成的不良后果 2.进行细菌耐药性监测,了解本医院、本地区及全国某种致病菌的耐药性变迁情况,以便采取有效措施,防止细菌耐药的发生和发展。 3.根据细菌对各种抗生素的敏感谱,对被测
30、菌进行鉴定。,Recover quickly,抗微生物药物敏感试验 Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests (AST),SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING:,CLSI (clinical and laboratory standards institute)推荐的方法: 体外抗菌药物敏感试验,SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING,Susceptible bacteria : S Bacteria do not grow in the presence of the antibiotic Treatment with this antibiotic
31、 will be successful Resistant bacteria : R Bacteria grow in the presence of the antibiotic Treatment with this antibiotic will be a failure Intermediate bacteria : I Intermediate result 2014 Susceptible-dose dependent : SDD 指依赖于患者所用剂量的菌株敏感性。当菌株的药敏结果 (MIC 或纸片扩散法) 在“SDD”范围时,临床应提高给药方案 如更高剂量和(或) 更频繁给药,以
32、达到临床疗效。,RESULTS,SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING,K-B法,纸片扩散法 (Kirby-Bauer method ,Disk diffusion method) MIC :ug/ml,DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES,Why do we use at least 3 colonies to prepare an inoculum for susceptibility testing?,Colonies may lose resistance plasmid.,SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING, Study of the MIC : MINIMUM
33、INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION Lowest concentration of antibiotic which inhibits visible growth of the studied strain. 所测得的某抗菌药能抑制检测菌肉眼可见生长的最低浓度称为MIC Method of dilution in liquid medium 0 0,5 1 2 4 8,Antibiotic concentration (g/ml),MIC = 1g/ml,Eg :, Automated methods : Study of bacterial growth in a liqui
34、d or semi-solid medium in the presence of one or several antibiotic concentrations,- ATB Expression - mini API,- VITEK 1 and VITEK2,SUSCEPTIBILITY TESTING,Etest Procedure,S. pneumoniae Penicillin MIC = 3 g/ml,联合药敏试验 Combined susceptibility test,适用情况: 对于致病菌尚未确定的急、重症感染的经验治疗,以扩大致病菌治疗覆盖面; 单一药物不能控制的多种混合感
35、染; 全身由多元耐药菌株感染; 减少或推迟治疗过程中细菌耐药的产生; 减少某些治疗指数低的抗菌药的用量从而减轻其毒副作用。,一些特殊细菌的药物敏感试验 Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test of special microorganisms,真菌药敏试验 厌氧菌药敏试验 结核菌药敏试验,DIFFERENT STEPS OF BACTERIOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS,Specimen collection Microscopic examination Culture Identification Susceptibility testing,Thank you,